Democracy and the Roman Republic
Most people are aware of the influence of the Roman Empire. Ancient Rome was known for its aqueducts, roads, and legal codes. However, long before the ascendancy of the Empire, Rome created a functioning republican system.
The Early Years
The early rulers of Rome were Etruscan kings. However, in 509 B.C.E. the last king was deposed and Rome declared itself a republic. There was no formal written constitution that established the new government. Rather, systems were formed which evolved and changed over time.
Although there were elements of democracy, the Roman Republic was much different than any modern state. Within Rome were slaves who essentially had no rights. Women could not vote or participate in government. During the early Roman Republic, there were severe class distinctions and barriers between the aristocratic patricians and the lower class plebeians.
Although Rome was a city-state at first, similar to Athens, through war it would expand significantly over time. First it conquered the rest of the Italian peninsula. Eventually, Rome would rule over most Mediterranean lands.
Republican Institutions
There were checks and balances in Rome’s government, but some political bodies were more powerful than others. After replacing the king as head of state, two Consuls were elected annually to lead. The reason for having two Consuls instead of one was so that each could veto the other if necessary. This structure was meant to keep total power out of the hands of one man.
Somewhat ironically, in times of great crisis, one man could be appointed with emergency powers. This leader was given the title of Dictator and could rule Rome and its armies with unlimited powers for up to six months. While the role seemed to work during much of the period, in later times it was abused and led to the end of republican government.
One example of the use of Dictator was the role played by Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus in 458 B.C.E. Cincinnatus was a patrician farmer who was appointed dictator during an attack on Rome. He took over the army and won a swift victory. He later suppressed a plebeian uprising as Dictator. Both times Cincinnatus relinquished his command after victory in battle and went back to civilian life as a farmer. Looking back, this was seen as an honourable thing to do, despite the obvious temptations of absolute power.
The most influential institution in the Roman Republic was the Senate. The Senate as a political force was a continuation of its role under the old kings. In theory, the Roman Senate was an advisory body of aristocrats offering guidelines to the Consuls. In practice, however, the Senate came to dominate Roman politics and play a large day-to-day role in domestic, foreign, and military policy. Senators were not elected. Instead, they were patricians appointed for life by the Consuls.
One of the important elected bodies was the Comitia Centuriata. This was the institution that elected the Consuls. The Comitia was an assembly of Roman citizens. Each group of citizens was formed a century based mostly on wealth. Each century had one vote in the assembly. Although this was more democratic in style, in reality, the wealthy centuries had fewer members and voted first on legislation.
While the institutions of the Roman Republic were dominated by the patricians, the plebeians persistently fought for more rights. There were a series of conflicts over a few hundred years. An eventual resolution was the creation of a new political assembly called the Tribune of the People. The Tribune was elected by the plebeians. The Tribune actually had the power to veto actions by the Consuls or Senate. However, unlike senators who remained in power for life, tribunes were rotated annually.
Fall of the Republic
For a time, the various political institutions worked somewhat efficiently. Yet something went wrong and Rome eventually disintegrated into tyrannical rule by emperors. There are a number of possible theories on why it happened.
As mentioned previously, Rome started off as a city-state. As it conquered new territories and became a far flung empire, it became increasingly difficult to run a government based on city politics. The existing political structures couldn’t handle the rapid expansion.
The armies of the early Republic were citizen armies. They were mostly farmers who fought for Rome for a period of time, then would go back to work on their farms as regular citizens. Later in the Republican period, the armies became professional. As the wars lasted longer and were being fought farther away, being a soldier became a long term career. These soldiers owed their loyalty more to their commanding generals than the government of Rome.
As political and social norms broke down, politicians fought amongst themselves and the generals got involved. It got to a point where some generals who didn’t like the people running the government worked to create an atmosphere of chaos and fear. Massacres increased in frequency between rival factions.
Caesar
The symbolic end to the Roman Republic came in 49 B.C.E. All military leaders were required to disband their armies at the Rubicon river before proceeding to Rome. Julius Caesar decided to ignore this taboo. He crossed the Rubicon, and initiated a five year civil war. By the end of the conflict, Caesar was declared Dictator for life. Following Caesar’s assassination, his successor, Augustus, became the first Emperor of the Roman Empire.
Perhaps there are some lessons to be learned from the era. Several political institutions in the world are at least partly based on the Roman Republic model, particularly that of the United States government.
Rome was plagued by authoritarianism, corruption, imperialism, and civil unrest, among other problems. Most of these issues still affect the modern world. The history of the Roman Republic serves as a cautionary tale on what can happen to any society.
Sources:
The Roman Republic [ushistory.org]
How Did The Roman Republic Work? — HistoryExtra
Lessons in the Decline of Democracy From the Ruined Roman Republic | History | Smithsonian Magazine
