The Last Imperial Dynasty Of China
The Qing Dynasty lasted from 1644 to 1912
A Golden Age
Early in the 17th century, an attack on China occurred from the north. Forces from Manchuria, called Manchus, defeated armies of the weakened Ming Dynasty and occupied northern China. The invasion continued until the surrender of the Ming Dynasty in 1644. In stark contrast to previous imperial regimes, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty of China were the Manchu people, and not the majority Han population.
The Manchus quickly adapted to governing China. Han opposition to the new order was crushed. Critics of the new regime were beheaded or sent into exile.
The new dynasty was established under Emperor Shunzhi in the capital Beijing. But he was only 24-years-old when he died: he was replaced by Emperor Kangxi in 1654, who ruled for 61 years and whose reign was considered the start of a new golden age for China.
Kangxi was considered a capable ruler. In government affairs, he curbed excessive spending and cut down on corruption. On the military front, the new Qing Dynasty repelled multiple Han-led rebellions and an attempted invasion by Tsarist Russia. Kangxi’s forces also seized the island of Taiwan.
One of Kangxi’s many princely sons, Yongzheng, replaced him and continued Kangxi’s policies for a short period. Emperor Qianlong became ruler in 1735 and led the nation for a long period. His reign was mostly prosperous. The population of China grew rapidly and more territory was acquired through conquest. Art and literature thrived in this period.
However, Qianlong’s long reign had a downside. The Emperor maintained an isolationist policy with foreigners. A particular consequence of this led to a lack of adoption of the latest scientific discoveries and technologies from other parts of the world, which would hinder the later years of the Qing Dynasty.
Attempts to conquer Burma and Vietnam resulted in costly failures. Qianlong indulged in large palace building projects and other luxuries in his later years. The result was oppressive taxation of the people and growing discontent.
The decline of the Qing Dynasty
The 19th century saw a decline of the Qing Dynasty’s fortunes. Modernization was achingly slow, and a long series of rebellions and famines began that would slowly drain the monarchy.
The largest conflict was the Taiping Rebellion from 1851–1864. Led by Hong Xiuquan, the rebels sought to overthrow the Qing leaders and then reform and modernize China. At one point, Xiuquan was preparing to invade the capital in Beijing. However, both Britain and France sent troops to aid the government and the rebellion was defeated. In the aftermath of the 13-year war, it is estimated that 25 million people died.
There were further outbreaks of war. The British wanted more influence and access to Chinese markets. Known as the Opium Wars, the Qing armies and navies were soundly defeated in 1838 and 1854. Trade was forced open and the British acquired Hong Kong as part of their military victory.
Japan had also begun attacking and taking more Chinese territories later in the century. This included Taiwan and Manchuria in 1895, where the Qing Dynasty originated, following the first Sino-Japanese war.
There was a devastating famine in northern China in the 1870s. Little aid was provided by the Qing government and up to ten percent of the population perished. Another large famine occurred in 1907, killing another 25 million.
End of Imperial China
The Empress Dowager Cixi ruled along with her nephew, Emperor Guangxu, from 1862 to 1908. In reality, Cixi held imperial power over that period.
A former concubine, Cixi reigned with the backing of conservative elements in society. She held firm against proposed reform efforts of Guangxu, where he was further sidelined.
In 1899, a rebellion against foreign influence began, supported by Cixi. Known as the Boxer Rebellion, Beijing was sacked and purged of foreigners. A strong counterattack by European forces ended the rebellion and Cixi was forced to flee the city. However, the Empress returned in 1902.
Following the death of Cixi, in 1908, two-year-old Xuantong was proclaimed Emperor of Imperial China. The country came under the rule of Xuantong’s father, Prince Zaifeng for a few years.
A relatively bloodless coup ended the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and the Republic of China was declared in 1912.
Impact
The Qing Dynasty had some lasting influence on China. There was rapid population growth that continued after the fall of the Qing rulers. A more integrated national economy was established. It passed on traditional Chinese culture.
The fall of the Qing Dynasty ended thousands of years of successive imperial dynasties. China would remain divided and unstable until Communist insurgents seized power in 1949.
